Introduction To Electrochemical Sensors Xi Meng Engineering Essay

Introduction To Electrochemical Sensors Xi Meng Engineering Essay This paper is mainly focused on three parts: introduction to electrochemical sensors Simply describe the working principle, main components breathable film, electrode, electrolyte and filter ,influencing factors and selectivity 3)Introduce sensor types (potentiometric sensors, voltammetric sensors and amperometric sensors, review and discuss some examples (Solid-State Reference Electrodes, Ion selective, Carbon Based Materials, Novel Materials/ composites) on the research of electrochemical sensors classified by sensor type for future research. [Key Words] Electrochemical sensor, electrode, potentiometric, Ion selective It can be tracked back to the 1950s, when electrochemical sensor was first used to monitor oxygen. To the mid-1980s, small electrochemical sensor began to be devoted into detecting a variety of different toxic gases within PEL range, and showed great sensitivity and selectivity. Currently, various electrochemical sensors are widely used in many static and mobile applications in order to protect the personal safety. Working principle Electrochemical sensors work by reacting with the gas to be measured, and showing electrical signals reflecting the gas concentration. Typical electrochemical sensor is made up of the sensing electrode( or working electrode) and the counter electrode, separated by a thin electrolytic layer. Firstly, gas reacts with the sensor through tiny capillary-type openings, then reaches the hydrophobic barrier, and ultimately reaches the electrode surface. Using this method allows an appropriate amount of gas reacts with the sensing electrode to form a sufficient electrical signal while preventing electrolyte leaks out the sensor. Gas spreading through the barrier reacts with the sensing electrode, and the sensing electrode can take the oxidation mechanism or reduction mechanism. These reactions are carried out by the design of the electrode material for the gas to be measured and catalysis. Electrical current proportional to the measured gas flows between the positive electrode and the negative electrode through a resistor connected between the electrodes. As this process creates electrical current, the electrochemical sensor is always called current gas sensor or micro fuel cells. In practice, since the electrode surface reacts continuously, the sensing electrode potential cannot be maintained constant, after a longer period of time, it will result in the degradation of sensor performance. In order to improve sensor performance, people introduces reference electrode in the sensor. The reference electrode is mounted in the electrodes nears the sensing electrodes, The fixed stable potentiostatic acting as the sensor electrode. Reference electrode can be maintained on such a fixed voltage value in the sensor electrode. There is no current flows between the reference electrodes. Gas molecules react with the sensing electrode, at the same time, measure the counter electrode. The measurement result is usually directly related to the gas concentration and the voltage value affects on the sensing electrode can be aimed at the target gas. Main components A. Breathable film (also referred as a hydrophobic membrane): breathable membrane is used for covering the sensor (catalytic) electrodes, used in some cases to control the amount of the gas molecular that reaches the surface of electrode. Such barriers are typically made by low-porosity Teflon film and such sensors are called coated sensor. Alternatively, we can also use the high-porosity Teflon membrane covering, using capillary control the amount of the gas molecular reaches the surface of the electrode and such sensors are called capillary type sensor. In addition to providing mechanical protection for the sensor, the film also has the function of filtering out unwanted particles. In order to send the correct amount of the gas molecules, we need to choose the right film and capillary aperture size. Aperture size should be able to allow a sufficient amount of the gas molecules to reach the sensing electrode. The aperture size should also prevent leakage of liquid electrolyte or dry too quickly. B. Electrode: selecting electrode materials is very important. The electrode material should be a kind of catalytic material, to be able to perform the semi-electrolytic reaction in a long period of time. Typically, the electrode is manufactured by noble metal, such as platinum or gold, reacts with gas molecules after catalysis. Depending on the design of the sensor may be, for the completion of the electrolysis reaction, three kinds of different materials of electrodes may be used. C. Electrolyte: The electrolyte must have enough promotion to electrolysis reaction, and transfer the ionic charge to the electrode effectively. It also must be able to form stable reference potential with reference electrode and be suitable to the materials used in the sensor. If the electrolyte evaporates too quickly, the sensor signal will be weakened. D. Filters: Sometimes the front of the sensor will be installed with the washing filter to filter out unwanted gas. There are limited selections for fileters, different filter has different efficiency degree. Most commonly used filter medium is activated carbon, and activated carbon can filter out most of the chemicals, but cannot filter out carbon monoxide. By selecting the correct medium, electrochemical sensors may have a higher selectivity for its target gas. The electrochemical sensor manufactured in many ways, ultimately depends on the gases to detect and manufacturers. However, the main characteristics of the sensor is very similar in essence. Here are some of the common characteristics of the electro-chemical sensors: 1. The three-electrode sensors, usually use a jumper to connect the working electrode and reference electrode. If remove it during storage process and it takes a long time for the sensor to maintain stable and ready for use. Some sensors require a bias voltage exists between the electrodes and in this case, the sensor is manufactured with a nine volt battery powered electronic circuit. The sensor stability requires 30minutes to 24 hours, and requires three weeks time to continue to remain stable. 2. Most of the toxic gas sensors require a small amount of oxygen to maintain the normal function. The sensor equipped with an air vent on the back in order to achieve this object. Our recommendation is to perform a re-examination with manufacturers in the use of non-oxygen background gas applications. 3. The electrolyte of the battery in the sensor is an aqueous solvent to be isolated, the hydrophobic barrier prevents leakage from the aqueous solvent. However, like other gas molecules, water vapor can pass through the hydrophobic barrier. In high humidity conditions, the prolonged exposure may result in the accumulation of excess moisture and cause leaks. Under low humidity conditions, the sensor may dry. Designed for monitoring a high gas concentration sensor having a lower porosity barrier to limit the gas molecules passing through, so that it does not affect by humidity, and like those monitoring low concentration gas, such sensors have a higher porosity barrier and allows gas molecules to flow freely. Pressure and temperature The electrochemical sensor pressure changes with impact minimally. However, due to the differential pressure may damage the sensor, so the entire sensor must maintain the same pressure. Electrochemical sensor is also very sensitive to temperature, and usually takes the internal temperature compensation. So it is best to try to keep the standard temperature. In general, when the temperature is above 25 Â ° C, the sensor readings are higher; below 25 Â ° C, lower readings. The error by temperature effect is usually from 0.5 to 1.0% per degree Celsius, depending on the manufacturer and the sensor type. Selectivity The electrochemical sensor usually has a high selectivity to its objectives. The degree of selectivity is dependent on the sensor type, objective gas, concentration of the target gas to be detected. The best electrochemical sensor is a sensor of the detection of oxygen, it has a good selectivity, reliability and a longer life expectancy. Other electrochemical sensors are susceptible to interference from other gases. Interference data can be drawn by a relatively low concentration of the gas calculated. In practical applications, the interference concentrations may be high to mislead signal make false readings or false alarms. Reference Electrodes Typically, use of reference electrode is to remain at a constant potential, thus behaving independently from the properties of the working electrode and those of the solution being measured. This separation method between reference electrodes and working electrodes is the basis of accurate electrochemical measurements for a great amount of applications, Example: Solid-State Reference Electrodes Reference electrodes have been put in use in a variety of industries, but usually traditional reference electrode composition is not adequately effective and fails to work properly when subjected to harsh industrial processes. Traditional reference electrodes depend upon a liquid solution for appropriate potential measurements. Liquid solution-based reference electrodes are in widespread use; however, successful miniaturization and mass production is severely limited by continual maintenance as well as contamination control. The alternative is a solid-state reference electrode (SSRE), but typically these devices cannot compete adequately with the reproducibility of liquid-based reference electrodes or be mass-produced consistently. Recently, a novel SSRE was developed using a polyelectrolyte junction and was able to fabricate a SSRE and a pH-sensing chip that displayed excellent reproducibility between synthetic batches, instant stabilization time, and superior sensing characteristic s and can be readily miniaturized for affordable mass-production. By using a solid KCl melt in conjunction with an Ag/AgCl component, in order to use in beverage industry applications. This SSRE has a wide range of pH use, stable potentials, and small drift potentials. The reported stability and life time of this reference electrode make it particularly applicable for the food industry. In addition to food industry, engine diagnostics are utilizing SSRE to assess efficiency. Potentiometric sensors Potentiometric sensors have usually been defined as a zero-current technique to measure the potential across an interface, oftentimes a membrane. As now, research has been focused on highlighting the significance of membrane composition using carbon pastes and polyvinyl chloride as well as unique ionophores specifically designed for targeted species. Example:Ion selective Scientists in this field are facing a challenge ranging from medicinal chemistry to environmental toxicity is that novel ion selective electrodes (ISEs). ISEs typically use an ionophore as the sensing platform to ensure selectivity to a specific ion of target. The increasing use of heavy metal and ion in industrial processes makes ion selective sensors important for the appropriate sensing and quantification of potential pollutants. Use and research were divided into cations, anions, and neutral species and got great achievements. Voltammetric sensors Voltammetry provides an electroanalytical method for deriving information about one or more analytes by measuring the current as a function of the potential. Several types of experiments may be performed to gather information from voltammetry including cyclic voltammetry, squarewave voltammetry, and stripping voltammetry to name a few common techniques. Example: Carbon Based Materials Carbon based electrodes have been widely used in voltammetric research because of low cost, availability, stability, and the ability to easily modify the morphology of carbon. There are a number of carbon-based electrodes including glassy carbon. Polycrystalline boron doped diamond, carbon nanotubes, and most recently grapheme. Through the detection of the neurotransmitter serotonin, they found that pristine carbon nanotubes networks exhibited background current densities that were 2 orders of magnitude lower than glassy carbon and 20 times lower than polycrystalline boron doped diamond. Numerous advantages of using carbon as an electrode tip including mechanical strength and inhibition of water electrolysis. Amperometric sensors During an amperometric measurement, the working electrode, or sensor , is held at a constant potential while the current is monitored. The current is then related to the concentration of the analyte present. Example: Novel materials/ composites Use of new materials, especially manomaterials, has become an increase of research in electrochemical sensors. The incorporation of these manomaterials in conjunction with one another to form novel composites is particularly interesting, as many of these materials have been found to have synergistic effects. Electrospun carbon nanofibers provide more edge sites on the outer wall than carbon nanotubes, which may lead to more facile electron transfer, better dispersion, and better wettability. And the low cost, facile construction, high sensitivity, and lack of pretreatment make it appealing for future electrochemical sensing application.

The Age of Turbulence

Alan Greenspan published â€Å"The Age of Turbulence: Adventures in a New World† on September 17, 2007 and the first half of the work is an autobiographical chronology of his life. It gives readers a chance to view the people and circumstances that can help and guide Greenspan as he grew up.The second half of the book states the major economic events that have occurred over the past half century. He details his life under different U.S. Presidents as well as economic systems including the Marxist Communism, Populism, as well as Market Capitalism.According to Greenspan, free market capitalism is the economic approach that will trump other approaches. Based on Adam Smith’s ‘invisible hand’ which is the people’s motivational self-interest which is important in his view of building a successful economy.In the book he discusses the fast historical growth of the U.S. economy under the market capitalism as well as its benefit to the other foreigners. Inters persed in the material is Greenspan’s lack of quality public secondary education for the masses especially in the field of sciences and mathematics and it role in the divergence of rich and poor in the U.S.Greenspan hits hard as he criticizes President Bush, VP Cheney and Republican-controlled Congress for abandoning the traditional tenets of fiscal discipline. Included in his argument is the President’s refusal to veto new Federal legislation which increases the spending easily. According to him, Bush approach has been one of â€Å"conflict avoidance† and attending to political agendas leaving no room for reason.It is President Gerald Ford whom he praises above all the other presidents including former President Clinton calling his governance as characterized as a consistent disciplined focus on long-term economic growth.† Even at the age of 81, Greenspan has strong opinions about several issues and is saddened that it is politically difficult to admit th at in truth, the Iraq war is mainly about oil. His comments about the war can be shocking as he reveals that there could be about 1.2 million people could have died because of this conflict in Iraq.According to a Washington Post columnist, people will most likely agree that Greenspan’s greatest contribution is that of the policy maker who, â€Å"through the power of his office, the force of his intellect, and the cunning behind-the-scenes maneuvering, engineered the wholesale deregulation of the US banking and financial system†.With regard to legacy, his most important legacy is that of making the US economy â€Å"more prone to asset bubbles, corporate scandals and financial crises, but robust enough to absorb such shocks while continuing to deliver long-term economic growth† (Pearlstein, 2006, p. D01).He was elected to third consecutive term in 1996. One of the highlights of this term is said to be the crucial role he played during the financial crisis that hit Asia and Russia.With the world financial system under threat, Greenspan is said to have gone against the conventional wisdom of raising interest rates, and instead convinced his Fed colleagues to do the reverse and support him in pushing for three consecutive interest rate cuts. That unexpected move is said to have been instrumental in pumping capital flows into the world economy and averted a recession in the US and many parts of the world.Moreover, Greenspan is said to have collaborated with the then secretary of the treasury Robert Rubin in inspiring confidence in the national economy, so much so that in 1998, unemployment levels were at 24-year lows, inflation levels were at 11-year lows, and consumer confidence was highest compared to the past 30 years.According to a Washington Post columnist, people will most likely agree that Greenspan’s greatest contribution is that of the policy maker who, â€Å"through the power of his office, the force of his intellect, and the c unning behind-the-scenes maneuvering, engineered the wholesale deregulation of the US banking and financial system†.With regard to legacy, his most important legacy is that of making the US economy â€Å"more prone to asset bubbles, corporate scandals and financial crises, but robust enough to absorb such shocks while continuing to deliver long-term economic growth† (Pearlstein, 2006, p. D01).Some examples demonstrate the Greenspan standard in action. From 1994 to early 1995, for example, Greenspan was said to have launched a series of preemptive moves to tighten the monetary policy to ward off the threat of a trend towards rising inflation, in the form of increased interest rates. While the move to raise rates were said to have initially shocked the market, such moves were said to be a clear statement of the Fed’s seriousness to tame inflation.As a testament to his flexibility, he then eased rates towards late 1995 when the economy showed signs of abrupt weakeni ng, thus pumping money into the economy and avoiding a slowdown in economic activities (Yu, n.d., p. 5).Another example of Greenspan’s prescience was in 1998, when the Fed introduced rate cuts in three consecutive months from September to November, amidst signs of an economic slowdown. Such moves are said to have influenced European central banks to make similar rate cuts to avert a greater slowdown in the economies of Europe.Virtually every intellectual sector in the United States and the rest of the world has heaped praise on the singularly successful steering of monetary policy by Alan Greenspan during his term as chairman of the US Federal Reserve Board. Blinder and Reis, in a paper out of Princeton notes the following:No one has yet credited Alan Greenspan with the fall of the Soviet Union or the rise of the Boston Red Sox, although both may come in time as the legend grows. But within the domain of monetary policy, Greenspan has been central to just about everything tha t has transpired in the practical world since 1987and to some of the major developments in the academic world as well (Blinder and Reis, 2005, p. 1).Indeed, the book examines his views on these issues. To wit, Greenspan presided over an era marked by the Black Friday stock market crash in 1987, the wars in Kuwait in 1990 and the Iraq war in 2000, a global financial crisis in 1997 and 1998, â€Å"the biggest financial bubble in history†, a productivity growth turnaound that started in 1995, and the threat of deflation in 2003 (Blinder and Reis, 2005, pp. 1-2), and successfully hurdled them all to the benefit of the US and world economies.On the other end, some quarters have also been critical of the tenure of Alan Greenspan. One quarter argues that Greenspan leaves the Fed with a legacy of debt that will have long-term adverse impacts on the US and world economies. Specifically, a study notes that such a legacy of debt by Greenspan has â€Å"potential adverse consequencesâ₠¬ .Basically, the line of reasoning is that foreign creditors could start to question how America will be able to pay future interest and dividend payments without resorting to â€Å"printing dollars†, and such could result on a run on the dollar. The run on the dollar can then lead to a rise in interest rates, which could hurt the housing market and cause mortgage defaults to rise. Such a rise in defaults could then cripple the banking system, making Federal rate cuts less effective in steering the economy.I think that on balance, those who have been heaping accolades on Mr. Greenspan’s performance at the helm of the Federal Reserve Board have reason to do so. The Greenspan era was one that was characterized by the singular success of the policies of Mr. Greenspan to steer the US economy to its current state of prosperity.Basically, my take on the Greenspan standard is that Mr. Greenspan’s policies are based on intelligent, period-by-period assessments of the state of the economy, and making adjustments to monetary as needed, discarding old assumptions that are not in tune to reality and keeping close tabs to what is actually happening moment by moment. The Greenspan standard seems just another way of saying that Mr. Greenspan kept a close watch of the economy and did everything at his disposal to make sure that monetary policy is cautiously and prudently managed.The criticism regarding Mr. Greenspan’s legacy as one of it being a legacy of debt is simplistic. The argument is predicated on the withdrawal of trust by creditors in the ability of the US to pay its debt obligations, and on the collapse of the housing market. It is simplistic because it fails to consider that the macro economy is dependent on factors other than housing.Also, it is simplistic because the argument does not take into consideration the probability of a debt default happening, which is the main event that detractors say will touch off a series of cascading e ffects leading to the weakened ability of interest rates tweaking in controlling the economy.He mentions in the book that the rate of technological innovation is slowing down. He is pessimistic about the prospects that the United States is facing. He is able to predict that there are advances in the information technology and this will permanently increase the economy’s growth capacity.   Greenspan was able to keep interest rates low so that the economy could reach its potential. Greenspan was vindicated because in the years after that, the productivity figures started rising consistently.By and large, Greenspan’s memoir is an interesting read that makes readers enlightened about his life in the context of the Sept. 11 bombing. He is a man who also influenced the nation as he traces his early roots, as well as his training as an economist and finally his job as the Fed Chairman.His experience in the dotcom era manifests to him that the best way to control a speculati ve boom is to prevent it from developing from the very start. What makes the book an engaging material is the fact that he relied on the use of formal mathematical models together with a set of assumptions that can be identified with data. He stated his own predictions about the future and concluded that in the end, it is man’s ability to transcend the sufferings and trials that ultimately matters in the end.REFERENCESBlinder, A.S and Reis, R. (2005). Understanding the Greenspan Standard. Princeton University. Retrieved April 6, 2008 at: http://www.kc.frb.org/PUBLICAT/SYMPOS/2005/PDF/BlinderReis.paper.0914.pdfGreenspan, Alan. The Age of Turbulence: Adventures in a New World. Allen Lane (17 Sep 2007) Pearstein, S. (2006). The Laissez-Fairest of them all. Washington Post. 20 January 2006. Retrieved April 6, 2008 at: http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/01/19/AR2006011903180.htmlYu, H. (n.d.). Alan Greenspan. University of Florida. Retrieved April 6, 2008 at : http://bear.cba.ufl.edu/demiroglu/fin4504fall2004/Articles/Greenspan.pdf

Most Noticeable Possible Essay Topics

Most Noticeable Possible Essay Topics When it has to do with writing an argumentative essay, the most essential issue to do is to select a topic and an argument that you could really get behind. The primary goal of topic choice for a proposal essay is to demonstrate the idea can be put into place in practice. The point is that someone with a wide ranging vocabulary ought to be in a position to chat about any of the usual essay topics easily using words that are particular to that topic. Therefore, to write a great essay you must brainstorm all thoughts concerning your life experiences. Inspiration to make your own advertising or media argumentative essay topics isn't tricky to discover. Advertising and the media are now nearly inseparable from society for a whole. Facts, ultimately, will always win out against how folks are feeling at a specific moment. Some folks claim that the aim of politics ought to be the pursuit of an ideal. They believe that scientific discoveries have given us a much better understanding of the world around us. At the exact same time, detecting cause and effect relationships isn't that easy in regards to the selection of a very good cause and effect essay topic. An argumentative essay requires you to choose a topic and have a position on it. On the opposing side, obtaining a list of good persuasive essay topics is insufficient. Researching the topic permits you to find out more about what fascinates you, and should you pick something you truly like, writing the essay will be more enjoyable. At times you might require some expert h elp with argumentative essay topics. Moral argumentative essay topics are a few of the simplest to get carried away with. To put it differently, the essay should say how you intend to get ready for class. Narrative essays serve wide range of purposes. Informative essays are somewhat more descriptive. Individual schools sometimes need supplemental essays. In such situations, you wouldn't have the ability to create excellent essays for your university. Enable the professional academic writers help to your informative paper! Thus, it's important to read corresponding formatting guide. Now compose the sentence in which you say the method by which the quotation proved the topic sentence that supports your general thesis. You shouldn't write diverse paragraphs that might appear to be meaningless. The introductory paragraph needs to be attractive and it needs to be written in a catchy way. The Bad Side of Possible Essay Topics Next, you must get started reviewing the important facts to keep in mind about each event on your list. The majority of the questions are on current topics, therefore staying updated with what's going on in the world is really going to help you think of ideas. When you're picking your topic, bear in mind that it's much simpler to write about something wh ich you presently have interest ineven in case you don't know a good deal about it. Have a look at each question carefully and take a small time to work out the topic and what type of answer is going to be expected. You may continue to keep your argumentative essays for your upcoming job portfolio in case they're highly graded. Many argue that vocabulary isn't important but an excellent vocabulary can help you in expressing just the significance of the speech or thoughts. Your stories aren't debatable. You should always work to boost your reading volume so that you are able to raise your knowledge level. Possible Essay Topics: No Longer a Mystery Many students have a tendency to encounter the writing issues due to the dearth of suitable comprehension. In other words, a proposal essay identifies an issue and suggests a remedy to that issue. Application essays about challenges reveal how you respond to difficulty to individuals who are really interested in how you are going to manage the subsequent four years by yourself. The Ultimate Possible Essay Topics Trick Colleges are not searching for perfect folks. They are more likely to admit students who can articulate specific reasons why the school is a good fit for them beyond its reputation or ranking on any list. Some people think that universities should require every student to have a range of courses beyond the student's field of study. College students should base their selection of an area of study on the access to work in that area.

Business Analysis THe Case of Costco Company - 554 Words

Key Issues: At the end of 2012, Costco was a successful business, but there are some issues that they would need to deal with. These issues mainly arise from their previous successful ventures as a warehouse wholesale company. The first issue is that Costco has competitors that can actually be and are a threat to their success. Competition allows a company to improve itself and prove its prowess to its customers. However, when a competitor is able to provide the service at a much reduced cost, problems will arise. As for the second issue, it seems that Costco’s efforts to become an international company are moving slowly. They have not reached a point where their US and Canadian warehouses provide a backbone for their finances. Costco’s third issue is that their finances are too reliant on acquiring new members and not on selling their products. If they cannot keep acquiring new members at a steady rate, their financial infrastructure could suffer. Analysis: Key Issue #1: Costco has many competitors with the primary two being Sam’s Club, a warehouse wholesale business being managed by Walmart, and BJ’s warehouse. Sam’s Club is offering the same services as Costco. They offer their customers lower prices than traditional stores and like Costco they sell their products in bulk to keep members interested. What makes them a threat to Costco is the cost of becoming a member to shop at their stores. For Costco’s basic membership, known as a Business membership, a priceShow MoreRelatedCostco Wholesale Corporation: Mission, Business Model, and Strategy1309 Words   |  6 PagesCase Analysis 1 Costco Wholesale Corporation: Mission, Business Model, and Strategy Renee Francia Strategic Human Resources BME 0939883 May 2013 Term Company Background Costco Wholesale Corporation (Costco) is a retail membership warehouse chain which was founded by Jim Sinegal and Jeff Brotman in 1983. 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